The Role of Rituals in Ancient Chinese Governance and Society

Taishigong said, “Ritual has a great and far-reaching virtue. It dominates and restricts all things in the world and enslaves the people of the world. How can it be done by human power? I once went to the great ritual official to study the evolution of the ritual system of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. I discovered that social conditions and human nature have long influenced the creation of rituals.

The basic principle of thousands of ways to follow is to guide people, teach them benevolence and righteousness, and punish them. Therefore, people with noble morals have a noble status; people with high salaries are highly respected and favored, so as to unify the consciousness of people all over the world and tidy up their hearts. People feel comfortable riding in carriages and horses, so they decorate the carriages with gold, carve the wheel scales, inlay gold and silver, and add complicated decorations; eyes like to see colorful beauty, so they design patterns on clothes to make the appearance The human body is more beautiful; the human ear is happy to listen to the pleasant sounds of bells and chimes, so various musical instruments are tuned to stir people’s inner emotions; the human tongue likes to eat delicious food, so delicious dishes are cooked, either sour or salty, each with its own beauty; the temperament likes precious and beautiful things, so jade is made into jade tablets and carved and polished to suit one’s own wishes. Therefore, the emperor’s chariot is made of cattail as a mat, the deerskin hat is matched with cloth clothes, the red string zither has holes at the bottom, and clear meat soup and fresh water wine are used for sacrifice, all because of preventing excessive luxury and correcting the drawbacks of extravagance. Therefore, from the order of respect and inferiority in the court of the monarch and his ministers to the level of food, clothing, housing, transportation, marriage, and funerals of the common people, everything has an appropriate degree, and everything is moderate. Confucius said, “I don’t want to watch the emperor’s sacrifice ceremony held in Lu since the ground was filled with wine.”

After the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, the ritual system was abandoned, the music system was destroyed, and the various levels were usurping each other, so that Guan Zhong married women from three surnames. People who abide by the law and keep the right path in the world are bullied, and those who are extravagant and exceed the rules are regarded as noble and glorious. Even Zixia, a great disciple of Confucius, said, “I am happy to see various gorgeous and beautiful things when I go out, and I am happy to hear the Master’s teachings when I come back. These two happy things often struggle in my heart, and I can’t decide which to choose.” What’s more, people with average qualifications and below have been in customs and environments that have been lacking in teaching for a long time. Confucius said on the politics of Wei State: “We must first correct their status.” But when he lived in Wei, he saw many things that were not in accordance with etiquette. After Confucius’ death, his disciples were scattered; some went to Qi and Chu, and some moved to Hebei and the mainland. Isn’t it a pity!

When Qin unified the world, it collected all the etiquette systems of the six countries and selected the best ones to use. Although it was inconsistent with the system of the ancient sages, it also respected the monarch and suppressed the ministers, making the court majestic and solemn, in accordance with the etiquette inherited from ancient times. When Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty recovered the world and owned it, the Confucian scholar Shusun Tong added and subtracted the Qin system and formulated the Han Dynasty system, whose main body was inherited from the Qin Dynasty. The original etiquette system of the Qin Dynasty. From the title of the emperor to the assistants, palaces, and official names, there were few changes. After Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne, the relevant departments of the court suggested reformulating the etiquette. At that time, Emperor Xiaowen loved Taoism and believed that cumbersome etiquette could only whitewash the appearance and was not conducive to the order of the world. What was the point of educating others by personal practice? So it was not adopted. During the reign of Emperor Xiaojing, the Imperial Censor Chao Cuo was knowledgeable about worldly affairs and well versed in criminal law. He repeatedly advised, “The princes are the shields and assistants of the emperor, and they are on the same level as the ministers in the court. This has been the case since ancient times. Now, the princes and big countries are governing their own territories, which is different from the court’s policies, and they do not report everything to the capital. This matter cannot be sustained and will harm future generations.” Emperor Xiao Jing adopted his strategy and weakened the princes, which led to the rebellion of the six countries. He put the killing of Chao Cuo as the first reason for the uprising. The emperor had no choice but to kill Chao Cuo to resolve the crisis of the current situation. This incident was recorded in detail in “Biography of Yuan Ang.” Since then, officials have only been keen on making friends with princes and enjoying their salaries, and no one dared to raise this proposal again.

After the current emperor (Emperor Wu of Han) ascended the throne, he recruited talents who were proficient in Confucianism and ordered them to jointly formulate etiquette and systems. After more than ten years, they were unsuccessful. Some people say that in ancient times, the world was peaceful, the people lived in harmony and happiness, and they could select customs and formulate systems only when they could sense the heavens and send down various auspicious signs. These conditions no longer hold true today. After hearing these words, the emperor issued an edict to the censor: “The dynasties that received the mandate of heaven and became kings, although each had its own reasons for prosperity, all ended up in the same way, that is, they rose from the hearts of the people and followed the customs and habits of the people to create systems. Nowadays, people who discuss things are more concerned about the past than the present. What hope do the people have? The Han Dynasty was also a dynasty. If the laws and regulations cannot be passed down, how can we explain them to future generations? Those who educate people with profound and noble ideas will have a great and broad influence on future generations; those who govern the people with a shallow vision will have a narrow and biased position in people’s minds. How can we not encourage ourselves with this?” So, the calendar was revised with “Taichu” as the first year, the color of clothing was changed, the Fengshan ceremony was held on Mount Tai, and the rituals of ancestral temple sacrifices and officials’ congratulations were formulated as the unchanging system of the court and passed down to later generations.

People create rituals. People are born with desires. If their desires are not met, they will inevitably be resentful. If they are not satisfied, they will cause fights, and fights will cause disasters. The ancient emperors hated disasters, so they formulated rituals to nourish people’s desires and meet people’s needs so that desires would not be restricted by material shortages and materials would not appear scarce due to excessive desires. Things and desires grow together, which is the reason for the emergence of rituals. Therefore, rituals are a way of conditioning. The five flavors of rice and wheat nourish people’s mouths; pepper, orchid, and fragrant angelica nourish people’s noses; the sounds of bells, drums, and various orchestral instruments nourish people’s ears; carvings Carved patterns are pleasing to the eyes; spacious houses and beds are pleasing to the body. So etiquette is a way of conditioning.

The desires of a gentleman are both nourished and satisfied, and he is willing to be restricted by etiquette. Discrimination distinguishes between noble and humble to create levels and between old and young to create differences. The poor, the rich, the humble, and the noble can all be treated accordingly. Therefore, the emperor rides on a large chariot with cattails as mats to maintain his body; fragrant herbs are placed beside him to nourish his nose; the front wheel is decorated with inlays to nourish the eyes; when the car moves, the phoenix bells tinkle, the rhythm is slow like the music of the “Wu” and “Xiang” dances, and the rhythm is fast like the “Shao” and “Fu” dances, which are used to nourish the ears; under the dragon flag, the nine tassels hang low, which is used to cultivate the emperor’s honesty. The wheels are decorated with the shape of a lying rhinoceros, the lying armrests are decorated with tiger skin, the horse belly belt is made of shark skin, and the yoke is carved with The appearance of a dragon is used to cultivate the majesty of the emperor. The horses that drive the road must be trained and docile before they can be ridden in order to ensure the safety of the emperor. Who knows that scholars go through life and death and seek fame and integrity just to maintain their lives? Who knows that being frivolous and generous is to accumulate wealth? Who knows that being humble and polite is to maintain peace? Who knows that learning etiquette, benevolence, literature, and principles is to cultivate temperament?

If a person is determined to survive, he will definitely die; if he is determined to make a profit, he will definitely suffer; if he is content with laziness, he will be in danger; if he is stubborn, he will die. Therefore, the saints use etiquette and morality to regulate everything so that they can avoid death, be close to benefits and stay away from harm, live in peace and avoid danger, and get the best of both worlds. On the contrary, if you indulge in your emotions and fulfill your nature, you will lose both. Confucianism makes people The best of both worlds, the Mohist doctrine makes people lose both; this is the difference between Confucianism and Mohism.

Rites are the highest criterion for saints to govern the world, the foundation of strengthening the country and the family, the best way to exercise power, and the general outline for people to achieve achievements and reputation. If the kings and nobles follow it, they can unify the world and make the princes submit; if they do not follow it, they will abandon the country, and the family will be destroyed. Therefore, tough armor and sharp weapons are not enough to win; tall walls and wide and deep moats cannot guarantee strong defense, and strict laws and heavy penalties cannot guarantee the establishment of majesty. If you do things according to rites, everything will be successful, and if you do not do things according to rites, everything will be in vain. The Chu people used shark leather, rhinoceros, and ox skins for armor, which were as tough as gold and stone; they also had large iron spears made in Wancheng, which were as sharp as the tail of a sharp scorpion when drilling and piercing; the army was light and fast, and the soldiers were as swift as a storm. However, the army of Chu was defeated at Chuishe, and General Tang Mei died there; Zhuang Qiao raised an army, and Chu was divided into four. Can this be said to be due to the lack of strong armor and sharp weapons? This is because the means of governance did not follow the ritual system. Chu used the Ru River and Ying River as obstacles, the Min River and Han River as moats, the Deng Forest to block it from the Central Plains, and the Fangcheng Mountain as a border. However, the Qin army attacked Yan and Ying directly and was like a dead tree and rotten wood all the way. Is this because there are no strong fortresses and dangerous obstacles? This is because the means of governance did not follow the ritual system. King Zhou of Shang cut open Bigan’s heart, imprisoned Jizi, and made torture instruments to kill innocent people. At that time, the subjects were terrified, and their lives were in danger. When the Zhou army arrived, King Zhou’s orders were not followed by anyone, and the people were not used. Is this because the orders were not strict and the punishments were not severe? This is because the rule did not follow the ritual system.

In ancient times, weapons were only halberds, spears, and bows and arrows. However, the enemy countries surrendered prior to their use. The people in the suburbs did not need to gather together to defend the city, nor did they need to dig a defensive moat outside the city. They did not need to build strong fortifications. They did not use military strategies, but the country was safe, fearless of foreign enemies, and strong. There was no other reason, but it was because they understood the way of courtesy and justice and could handle interpersonal relationships fairly, serving people at the right time and loving each other sincerely. Therefore, the people obeyed orders, like a shadow attached to a body, like an echo attached to a sound. If there were people who disobeyed orders, they would be punished, and then the people would know which behaviors were criminal. Therefore, when one person was punished, the whole world would obey. The criminals had no complaints against their superiors because they knew that they were wrong. Therefore, the punishment was simple, and the order was implemented without hindrance. There was no other reason, but because of following the way of courtesy and justice. Therefore, if you adhere to the principles of courtesy and justice, you can accomplish anything; if you don’t, your efforts will be futile. In ancient times, Emperor Yao ruled the world, and it was peaceful and stable after killing one person and punishing two people. The book says: “Although the majesty is fierce, it should not be adopted lightly, and although the punishment is set, it should not be implemented lightly.”

Heaven and earth are the origin of life, ancestors are the origin of clans and species, and monarchs and teachers are the origin of national governance and stability. How can there be life without heaven and earth? How can there be descendants without ancestors? How can we govern the country without monarchs and teachers? If one of the three is missing, no one can be at peace. Therefore, serving the heaven above and the earth below, respecting ancestors, and honoring teachers are the three fundamental issues of etiquette.

Therefore, the emperor can offer sacrifices to the mighty ancestor with the sky, and the princes dare not have such thoughts. Officials and scholars also have their own ancestors, who help them distinguish between the noble and the humble. There is a difference between the noble and the humble, and this is the root of etiquette. Only the emperor is empowered to offer sacrifices to the gods and ancestors. The princes and literati have their own rules to show that the noble people worship the noblest gods, the humble people worship the humble gods, the people who are suitable for doing big things do big things, and the people who are suitable for doing small things do small things. Therefore, the emperor who rules the world serves the ancestral temple of seven generations, the princes who rule a country serve the ancestral temple of five generations, the officials who own five chariots of land can offer tablets of three generations of ancestors, and the scholars who own three chariots of land can offer tablets of two generations of ancestors. Ordinary people cannot establish ancestral temples. This is to distinguish between people with high morals who have broad grace and people with shallow morals who have narrow grace.

In the enormous sacrifice to the gods, Xuanshui is respected, and fish is respected as food. The big soup is the first, which means that the original nature of food is valued. Although the grand sacrifice to the gods advocates dark wine, the drink is light wine; the food advocates yellow rice and millet, and rice and sorghum are added to the meal; the corpse is first served with a large soup, and the stomach is filled with various kinds of food, which means that both the original nature of food and the practical effect are emphasized. The emphasis on the original nature is to show the form of the sacrifice, so it is called Wen; taking practicality into account is to express the concept of the sacrifice, so it is called Li. The combination of the two is still Wen. Only when the simplicity of the initial state of the ritual is added can it be considered to have both Wen and quality and reach the most prosperous and perfect stage of the ritual, which is called Dalong. Therefore, dark wine is preferred in the jar, fish is preferred on the table, and large soup is preferred in the soup; the reason is the same. During the sacrifice, the people who assist the food do not drink in small sips but drink it all at once; the sacrifice of the dead and crying has an offering but no vinegar, and the people who participate in the sacrifice do not taste the table except the corpse; the blessing and the people who assist the food persuade the corpse to eat, because the ritual is completed three times; after three persuasions, the ritual is completed, and the corpse stops eating; even if it is persuaded again, it will not eat again. The aforementioned three aspects share a common principle, indicating that etiquette effectively distinguishes, maintains restraint, and values the original. Before offering sacrifices to the gods at weddings, before welcoming the corpse into the Taimiao during sacrifices, and from death to the small burial, the etiquette is straightforward. The emperor used plain curtains to cover the main road, wore a linen crown during suburban sacrifices, and the hemp belt was the most important mourning dress. The principle is the same, which means that etiquette values ​​quality over form. The mourning of the death of the emperor (pronounced as Cui) was mournful, not formal; the sacrificial song “Qingmiao” was sung by one person and sung by three people, with deep feelings that overflowed beyond the lyrics; the musical bells were on the frame, but sometimes they were suspended without being struck, and the bell frame was struck as a beat; the large harp was made of vermilion strings with silk, and the sound quality was clear, but holes were made in the bottom of the harp to make the sound heavy and turbid, and the principle is the same, which means that emotion is more important than sound, and also the original.

All rituals begin with simplicity and sparseness, and they become complete only when they incorporate literary grace. However, literary grace should not be excessive and must be selected and discarded in the end to be practical. Therefore, the most perfect ritual is one that has both inner feelings and outer forms; the next best is one in which the outer form is better than the inner feelings, or the inner feelings are better than the outer form, or one of the two; the lowest is one in which the inner feelings are completely attributed to the origin of heaven and earth. Heaven and earth coordinate with each other according to the way of rituals, the sun and the moon show their brightness according to the way of rituals, the four seasons are in order according to the way of rituals, the stars circle without danger according to the way of rituals, the rivers flow without stopping according to the way of rituals, all things prosper according to the way of rituals, likes and dislikes are restrained and adjusted according to the way of rituals, and joy and anger are handled appropriately according to the way of rituals. If rituals govern the ministers, they will be harmonious, and if rituals regulate the monarch, he will be wise.

Taishigong said, It is perfect! Establishing a prosperous and complete ritual as the highest principle of humanity, no one in the world can add or subtract anything. It is consistent with the text, echoing from beginning to end, rich in literary color without being complicated, moderate, discerning but not too meticulous, and pleasing to the heart. If people in the world follow it, there will be peace; if they do not follow it, there will be chaos. Those who follow it will be stable; if they do not follow it, they will be in danger. Ordinary people cannot take it as a rule.

The etiquette itself is really profound. The subtle analysis of the theory of “hard and white” and “same and different” will be ruined by it. The etiquette itself is really too grand. Those who make their own rules and regulations and narrow and shallow theories will feel ashamed of their insignificance and be far behind it. The etiquette itself is too noble. Those who are rude, arrogant, indulgent, shallow, and vulgar will lose their image and show their superficiality by comparison. Therefore, once the plumb line is set, people can no longer deceive each other with straightness and crookedness; once the weight is hung, people can no longer deceive each other with weight; once the compass and square ruler are placed, people can no longer deceive each other with squareness and roundness; if a gentleman is meticulous in etiquette, people can no longer deceive each other with cunning and hypocrisy. Because the plumb line is the standard of straightness, the weight is the standard of weight, the compass and square ruler are the standard of squareness and roundness, and etiquette is the highest standard for people to behave. Those who do not observe etiquette are not worthy of being treated with etiquette and are called people who do not observe the law; those who observe etiquette are worthy of being treated with etiquette and are called people who observe the law. Those who can get the middle way of etiquette, be impartial, and think about everything without violating reason are called diligent thinkers; those who can think without changing etiquette are called persevering. Those who can think and adhere to morality, plus have an incomparable love for etiquette, are saints. The sky is the highest point, the earth is the lowest point, the sun and the moon are the brightest points, the infinite is the vastest point, and the sage is the highest point of the way of propriety and righteousness.

Property reflects propriety, elegance reflects nobility and inferiority, difference reflects complexity, and key points reflects thickness. The one with much elegance but little human feeling is excessive etiquette; the one with insufficient elegance but strong human feelings is a simple and easy etiquette; literary and human feelings complement each other, and the most appropriate performance is to blend them in moderation. A gentleman can have the literary and human feelings of a grand etiquette and can also do things in moderation just right, without losing etiquette in urgency or urgency. Therefore, the nature of a gentleman is to adhere to the doctrine of the mean and not be extreme. Those who can strictly follow the scope of etiquette and righteousness as the scope of action are scholars and gentlemen. Those who do things beyond the limits of etiquette are ordinary people. Between scholars and ordinary people, those who are neither as rigid as scholars and gentlemen nor as unruly as ordinary people but can wander around, change with the right and wrong of things, and never lose the order of etiquette are saints. Since they practice etiquette and righteousness and accumulate, the saints have profound morality. They are magnificent and broad, which is the result of their expansion; they are noble in morality, which is why they prosper; and they are smart, which is why they do everything with etiquette.

Etiquette comes from the heart of people, not from the world. Through sincerity, we can shape people’s appearance, save people from hardship, and revive elegance. We can use rites to govern the people and to worship the clan. We can value literary beauty and human feelings, but we cannot fake a good life. Confucius once sat under a tree, and Sun Tzu walked in the wilderness. The saints made religious rules out of sincerity.

The Importance of Rituals: Sima Qian’s Reflections on Ancient Rituals

Sima Qian, the Grand Historian, stated:
“Rituals are of great virtue, vast and profound. They govern everything in the world, controlling human behavior. This is beyond the capabilities of mere human strength. I once visited the Chief Official of Ceremonies to study the rituals of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It became clear to me that these rituals, based on social conditions and human nature, have been established for a very long time.”

The Role of Rituals in Human Life

Human conduct is diverse, but all of it adheres to a single principle: to guide people toward understanding benevolence and righteousness while also using punishment to regulate behavior. Thus, the virtuous are revered, and the honorable are given high positions. This uniformity of behavior unites the hearts and minds of the people.

People’s desires—whether for comfortable transportation, fancy clothing, pleasant sounds, delicious food, or beautiful objects—are addressed by rituals that satisfy these desires but in a balanced way. The imperial court used simple but symbolic practices, such as reed mats and deer-skin hats, to avoid excessive luxury and to encourage moderation.

The Decline of Rituals and Its Consequences

After the fall of the Zhou dynasty, the ritual system collapsed, and the established social order began to disintegrate. Hierarchies were ignored, and even high-ranking officials like Guan Zhong took wives from different clans. Confucius himself lamented the collapse of the system, stating that the rituals of the state of Lu were no longer recognizable.

The Role of Rituals in Statecraft

When Qin unified the realm, it consolidated the ritual practices of the six warring states, choosing the best practices and enforcing them. Although these rituals did not entirely align with those of the sages, they were used to maintain order and authority. During the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Han, the court continued the traditions established by the Qin dynasty, although they made some adjustments. Emperor Wu of Han further refined these systems, but even he faced challenges in fully implementing them.

The Connection Between Rituals and the Preservation of Harmony

Rituals arose because of human desires, and when these desires are not regulated, they lead to conflict. Ancient rulers understood that it was necessary to satisfy the people’s desires while preventing them from becoming unchecked. Thus, rituals served as a means of nourishing and regulating desires, keeping balance in both the material and spiritual realms.

Rituals as the Foundation of Social Harmony

Rituals help create distinctions between different social classes and ensure that people are treated according to their status. This is reflected in the emperor’s use of simple symbols, like reed mats, for comfort and decorative elements that serve both aesthetic and practical purposes. Rituals are not merely symbolic—they play a vital role in maintaining social order and guiding individuals in their behavior.

The Greatness of Rituals

Rituals are central not only to governance but to personal behavior as well. They shape both the moral and physical well-being of individuals, guiding them in their relationships with others and in their role within society. Rituals also reflect the ultimate values of a society, balancing individual satisfaction with collective harmony. As Sima Qian concludes, rituals are an essential part of governing both the state and the individual, promoting peace, justice, and proper order.