The Role of Music and Ritual in Ancient Governance

Sima Qian said: “Every time I read the ‘Book of Documents: Yu Book,’ when I come across passages where the ruler and his ministers admonish and encourage each other, leading to some peace in the world, but then see records of unworthy ministers causing the ruin of all affairs, I am often moved to tears. When King Cheng of Zhou composed the ‘Odes of Zhou,’ he mourned the calamities his country faced, attributing them to the punishments he had received.

The methods of governing the country were flawed, leading to the rise of Zheng’s music. The feudal and hereditary kings, while gaining fame in the neighboring Zhou regions, competed with each other over the quality of Zheng’s music. Since Confucius could not coexist with the jesters of Qi in the state of Lu, even after he withdrew from the political scene of Lu, organized and refined the music to guide the people, and composed the “Five Chapters” songs to satirize current events, he

Emperor Qin Er Shi increasingly preferred music as entertainment. Chancellor Li Si advised, “Abandoning the principles recorded in the ‘Book of Songs’ and the ‘Book of Documents’ and indulging in music and women was the reason for the concern of the virtuous minister Zu Yi during the Yin Dynasty; neglecting the accumulation of small faults and indulging one’s desires during the long nights was the reason for the downfall of King Zhou of Yin.” Zhao Gao said, “The music of the Five Em

When Emperor Gaozu of Han quelled the rebellion of Prince Qingbu of Huainan, he composed the poem “San Hou Zhi Zhang” while passing through Pei Commandery on his way back, teaching the children to sing it. When Emperor Gaozu passed away, the court ordered that Pei Commandery perform this poem as a song and dance during ancestral temple sacrifices throughout the year. There were no changes during the reigns of Emperors Xiaohui, Xiaowen, and Xiaoj.

Now that the Emperor has ascended the throne, he composed the “Nineteen Songs of the Sacrificial Rite” and ordered the Chamberlain Li Yannian to sequentially set them to music, subsequently bestowing upon Li the title of Chief Music Officer. At that time, Confucian scholars who were only familiar with one of the classics could not independently interpret the meaning of the lyrics. They had to gather experts from the Five Classics to jointly study and read them in order to comprehend their meaning.

The Han court often held sacrifices to the God of Taiyi at Ganquan Palace on the first Xin day of the first month. The night sacrifices began at dusk and ended at dawn, and it was common for meteors to streak across the sky above the altar during the rituals. Seventy men, women, and children would sing together. In spring, they sang the “Qingyang” song, in summer the “Zhuming” song, in autumn the “Xiyu” song, and

Once, a divine horse was obtained from the Woshui River, and a song called “Song of Taichi” was composed. The lyrics said: “The grace of the Taichi God, the heavenly horse descends to the human world, sweat flows like blood, brown saliva drips from its mouth, galloping calmly, leaping over thousands of miles, who can match it? The dragon is its friend.” Afterward, the army conquered Dayuan and obtained a thousand-mile horse named Pus.

Generally speaking, the origin of sound is produced by the human heart. The changes in the human heart are caused by external objects. The heart is moved by external objects and changes, which are expressed through sound; when sounds resonate with each other, changes occur. Changes according to certain methods and rules are called musical tones; when instruments are played along with the rhythm of sound and then aided by weapons and flags for performance, it is called music (yuè). Therefore, music is produced by sound, and

Generally speaking, sound originates from the human heart. Emotions resonate within the heart, manifesting as sound. Fragmented sounds combine and transform into a structured whole, known as music. Therefore, in a peaceful world, music is filled with comfort and joy, reflecting harmonious politics; in a tumultuous world, music is filled with resentment and anger, indicating chaotic politics; in a nation on the brink of collapse, music is filled with sorrow and despair, with the people in misery and hopelessness. The principles

Generally speaking, music and rhythm are formed from within a person’s heart; music is connected to ethics. Therefore, those who only know about sound but not about harmonizing rhythm are like beasts; those who only know about rhythm but not about creating music are ordinary people. Only a gentleman understands music. Thus, by carefully examining sound to understand rhythm, examining rhythm to understand music, and examining music to understand political situations, the method of governing the world becomes complete. Therefore, those who do not understand sound are not

Life is inherently quiet; this is a nature bestowed by heaven. The emotional changes that occur after perceiving external objects are the external manifestations of this nature. When external objects come close, they are perceived by the mind, forming feelings of likes and dislikes. If these feelings are not restrained internally, the mind will be tempted by external objects, unable to return to its original state, and the heavenly principle will be extinguished. The sensations that external objects bring are endless, and if a person’s likes and dislikes are

The nature of music is to seek harmony, while the characteristic of ritual is to seek distinction. Seeking harmony fosters mutual affection among people, while seeking distinction fosters mutual respect. Excessive indulgence in music without restraint can blur and shift the boundaries of respect and hierarchy among people; excessive indulgence in ritual without restraint can lead to discord and moral decay. Harmonizing human emotions fosters mutual affection; regulating behavior and appearance establishes order in respect and hierarchy—this is the function of music and ritual. When the essence of

Joy arises from within the heart, while ritual is imposed from the outside. Because joy comes from the heart, it has the characteristic of tranquility; because ritual is imposed on people, its characteristic is the emphasis on form and appearance. Therefore, the melodies and instruments of great joy must be very simple, and great rituals must be very frugal. When joy is well done, people’s hearts are without resentment; when ritual is well done, there is no contention among people. The so-called governance of the world through

Great music harmonizes all things just like heaven and earth, and great rites regulate all things just like heaven and earth. Harmony allows all things to grow without loss; regulation gives rise to different rituals for worshiping heaven and earth. With rites and music in the human realm and ghosts and gods in the underworld, teaching the people with these two can achieve mutual respect and love under heaven. Rites require mutual respect in all situations; music, regardless of its form, must reflect the same love. The

Music is produced by imitating the harmony of heaven and earth; rituals are produced by imitating the order of heaven and earth. Harmony allows all things to grow and thrive; order allows all things to be distinguished. Music is made according to heaven, while rituals are made according to earth. If rituals are made excessively, chaos will arise due to the lack of distinction between the noble and the humble. If music is made excessively, violence will arise due to discord between the high and the low. Understanding these properties

When achievements are accomplished, music is created; when politics are stable, rites are established. The music created by great military achievements is more complete, and the rites established by extensive civil governance are more specific. Music like the dance of the halberd, which only praises military achievements, is not complete music; rites emphasize culture, so sacrifices emphasize spirit rather than taste. Using cooked food for sacrifices is not a grand rite. The music created during the reigns of the Five Emperors did not follow a

Heaven is noble, and Earth is humble; the relationship between ruler and subjects is like that of Heaven and Earth, with their positions clearly defined. Mountains and marshes differ in height and depth, and when arranged there, the nobility of officials and nobles is determined by their positions. Whether in motion or stillness, they all follow certain laws: the larger are still, and the smaller are in motion, allowing for the distinction of the sizes of all things. Those with magical properties and other formless

If the transformation and nurturing of heaven and earth are out of season, all things will not grow; if there is no distinction between male and female, chaos will arise. This is the true state of heaven and earth. Moreover, rites and music permeate between heaven and earth, and even the yin and yang spirits are related to rites and music. They are as high as the sun, moon, and stars, and as deep as mountains and rivers; rites and music can exhaust their emotions. Music originated in And propriety arises after the formation of all things. Heaven is that which is born and does not cease, while Earth is that which is born and does not move. The myriad things between heaven and earth have both movement and stillness. Propriety and music are like heaven and earth, which is why the sages have made various discourses on propriety and music as mentioned above.

Shun once made a five-stringed qin to sing the melodies of “Southern Wind”; since Kui, music was created to reward the feudal lords. Therefore, the emperor creates music to reward those virtuous feudal lords. When virtue is abundant and education is respected and honored, and the five grains are bountiful and in season, then music and dance are rewarded. Thus, in a well-governed state where the people are overworked, the number of musicians rewarded is few.

The laws of nature dictate that if the seasons do not come at the right time, diseases will arise; if wind and rain are uncontrolled, famine will occur. Politics and education are like the seasons for the common people; if education is untimely, it will harm the world. Labor and construction are like the wind and rain for the common people; if not regulated, nothing will be accomplished. Thus, ancient sage-kings composed music to symbolize governance. The length of good music and dance symbolizes the virtue.

Music is used to symbolize virtue, while rituals are used to prevent excessive behavior. Therefore, in ancient times, when a sage king experienced a major death or mourning, there would be corresponding rituals to express sorrow; during major events like sacrifices or celebrations, there would be corresponding rituals to align with the joyful mood. The degree of sorrow and joy is determined by the regulations of the rituals.

The nature of music is to give; the nature of ritual is to repay. The purpose of music is to express joy for the emotions that arise within oneself; the purpose of ritual is to commemorate and honor the achievements of one’s ancestors. The function of music is to promote virtue, while the function of ritual is to reflect the people’s support and to contemplate its reasons. Rituals emphasize repayment. For example, the golden and jade chariots used by the feudal lords, known as the Great Road,

Music celebrates the eternal emotions in human relationships; ritual expresses the unchanging principles of the world. Music highlights the common aspects of human feelings, while ritual distinguishes the differences among people. The harmony of music and ritual permeates the entirety of human emotions. Deeply rooted in the source, yet adaptable to change, is the characteristic of music’s content; the essence of ritual lies in manifesting sincerity and eliminating deceit. The harmony of music and ritual aligns with the sincere feelings of heaven and earth, embodying the virtues

Therefore, if the virtuous rulers and wise ministers in high positions can act according to rites and music, the heavens and the earth will become bright as a result. As for harmonizing the qi of heaven and earth, ensuring that yin and yang follow each other without fail, nurturing and fostering all things, then making the grass and trees flourish, seeds germinate, birds take flight, beasts grow, insects awaken, feathered creatures hatch, furry creatures give birth, and live-bearing creatures do not have stillbirths

Music does not refer to the grand and elaborate orchestration of melodies and dances; these are merely the trivial details of music. Therefore, it is sufficient to have young boys perform the music and dance. Setting up banquets, arranging wine and food, and performing the rituals of bowing and greeting—these so-called rites are merely the trivial details of rites. It is enough to have the officials in charge of ceremonies manage them. Musicians who are well-versed in vocal music should perform in the lower positions.

Music is a form of entertainment for sages, and it can lead people’s hearts towards goodness. Music has a profound influence on people, capable of changing customs and practices, which is why the ancient kings clearly mandated it as one of the components of education.

Every person has the nature of blood, emotions, and intellect, but they do not have unchanging joys, anger, sorrows, and joys. The human heart is influenced by external factors, causing fluctuations, and then the true nature of the heart is revealed. Therefore, if a ruler has a small and meticulous heart, favoring elaborate rituals, the music that arises will be hurried and weak in spirit, and the people will be filled with sadness and sorrow. If a ruler is lenient, broad-minded

Therefore, the former kings based music on human nature. They examined the movements of the sun and moon, regulated it with rites and moral principles, and aligned it with the harmonious yin and yang energies. This guided and inspired people to behave in accordance with the five cardinal virtues of propriety, righteousness, benevolence, wisdom, and faithfulness. Those with a naturally strong disposition would not let their yang energy scatter, and those with a naturally gentle disposition would not let their yin energy become dense. They would

When the soil is barren, plants cannot grow; when the waters are troubled, fish and turtles cannot thrive; when the seasons are weak, living beings cannot reproduce; when the world is in chaos, rituals and systems are abandoned, and the music becomes licentious. Therefore, the music at this time is mournful and not solemn. Although it is called music (yuè), it cannot bring peace. It is scattered and frivolous, losing its rhythm, lingering and indulging, unable to return to simplicity.

Human temperament has both positive and negative aspects, and different perceptions lead to different expressions. When one is affected by the sounds of wicked and improper music, negative energy is reflected, and this negative energy causes adverse effects, which in turn promotes the emergence of lewd and evil music. Conversely, when one is affected by the sounds of proper music, positive energy is reflected, and this positive energy causes an impact, which in turn promotes the emergence of harmonious music. The interplay between positive and negative, and between proper

Therefore, the noble person in a high position restrains their emotions, harmonizes their mind and will, and compares themselves to virtuous people to cultivate their own virtuous character and conduct. They ensure that improper sounds and sights do not enter their heart, to avoid confusing their ears and eyes; they do not allow lewd music and immoral rituals to touch their mind, nor do they let laziness, arrogance, and wickedness affect their body. Thus, all parts of the body, such as ears,

Morality is the rectified nature of humanity; music is the brilliance that emerges from morality, and instruments like metal, stone, silk, and bamboo are used to play music. Poetry expresses the mind’s aspirations, songs are the chanting of the tones of poetry, and dance merely alters the appearance of the singer. The mind, sound, and appearance are all rooted in the heart and are then expressed through poetry, songs, and dance. Thus, the emotions are profound and civilized, and the momentum is abundant.

Music is the result of the heart being moved by external objects; sound is the manifestation of music; the intricate changes, literary embellishments, and rhythms of strength and weakness, pauses and flows, are the adornments of sound. The gentleman’s heart is moved by the fundamental principle of morality as an external object, and he rejoices in its external manifestation, the sound. He then puts effort into embellishing the sound, which gives rise to music. Thus, in the “Martial” music, the

The gentleman says, “Ritual and music cannot be separated for even a moment.” By pursuing the use of music to govern people’s hearts, a harmonious, easy, upright, loving, and trustworthy disposition will naturally arise. When a harmonious, easy, upright, loving, and trustworthy disposition is cultivated, one will feel joy. With joy in the heart, the body will be at peace; with peace, there will be longevity. Longevity will make one trust in heaven as if it were a deity.

Joy operates within the heart, while propriety affects a person’s appearance and demeanor. Therefore, it is said that propriety emphasizes humility and restraint, while joy emphasizes fullness. Propriety, emphasizing humility, requires self-motivation and striving for progress, making progress a virtue; joy, emphasizing fullness, requires self-restraint, making restraint a virtue. If propriety is merely about humility without self-motivation and striving for progress, it will perish and be difficult to practice; if joy is merely about

Music (yuè) means joy (lè) and is indispensable in human emotions. When joy resides in the heart, it will produce sound and manifest in actions; this is inevitable for humans. The changes in human nature, emotions, and intentions are all reflected in sound and action. Therefore, one cannot be without joy, and joy cannot be without manifestation. Without establishing certain norms for manifestations, one cannot avoid chaos. The ancient kings disliked chaos, so they established sounds like “Ya Zheng” and”

Music is used by the former kings to embellish joy, while military weapons are used to embellish anger. Therefore, the former kings did not express joy or anger recklessly, and their actions were orderly and regulated. When they were joyful, the world was harmonious and joyful; when they were angry, those who caused disturbances were fearful. It can be said that the former kings developed rituals and music to their utmost peak.

Duke Wen of Wei asked Zixia, “I wear the ceremonial cap of Yan and respectfully listen to ancient music, yet I fear falling asleep. When I listen to the music of Zheng and Wei, I don’t feel tired at all. May I ask why ancient music makes one drowsy and why new music is so invigorating?”

Zixia replied, “Today’s ancient music is synchronized in its entrance and exit, orderly and uniform. The sound is harmonious, elegant, and upright, with a broad and expansive atmosphere. All string, bamboo, reed, and wind instruments follow the beat of the drum, starting with the beating of the drum and ending with the ringing of the gong. The rhythm is aligned, and the dance is swift, elegant, and not vulgar. Gentlemen praise ancient music for these characteristics, discussing the profound meanings contained

Wen Hou said, “May I ask what the difference is between sound and music?”

Zixia replied, “In ancient times, the heavens and the earth operated in harmony, the seasons followed their natural order, the people were virtuous, the crops were abundant, diseases did not arise, and there were no ominous signs. Everything was timely and just right; this was called the Great Harmony. Then, the sages established rituals for father-son and ruler-minister relationships as the basis of law and order. Once these foundations were set, the world was truly at peace. When the world is at peace, then the six pitches should be properly tuned, and the five tones harmonized. The elegant and righteous poems and praises should be composed into orchestral music; this is the music of virtue, and only the music of virtue can be called music. The “Book of Songs, Greater Odes of the Kingdom, Huang Yi” says: ‘The virtuous music of tranquility and peace, its virtue can illuminate the four corners of the world; it can illuminate the four corners and

Wen Hou said, “May I ask how drowning sounds are produced?”

Zixia said, “There are several types of indulgent music: Zheng music arises from indulging in the violation of rituals and laws, which corrupts people’s minds. Song music arises from indulging in lust, which leads to the loss of ambition; Wei music arises from hastiness and exhaustion, which causes mental fatigue. Qi music arises from arrogance and depravity, which leads to pride and indulgence. These four types of music all indulge in lust and damage virtue, so they are not used during

Bimu Jia accompanied Confucius, and they were chatting casually. When it came to music, Confucius asked, “The ‘Wu’ music starts with drumming to alert the crowd, and its duration is much longer compared to other pieces. What does this signify?”

Bin Mu Jia replied, “It indicates that at the beginning of King Wu’s campaign against Zhou, Dan Xin did not receive the support of the various feudal lords and was reluctant to take action.”

“What does it mean when his singing is repetitive and his voice lingers long?”

He replied, “That’s because of doubts in my heart, fearing that the matter might not succeed.”

“What does it mean that the ‘Wu’ dance starts off with such vigor and impressive momentum?”

He replied, “It means to act when the time is right, to make a decisive move, and not to miss the opportunity.”

“The sitting movement in the ‘Wu’ dance is different from his dance; it’s the right leg on one knee. What does that mean?”

He replied, “This is not the original movement of the ‘Wu’ dance.”

“The singing is lascivious, showing an improper intention to covet the Shang Dynasty’s power. What is the reason for this?”

He replied, “This is not the original tune of the ‘Wu’ dance.”

Confucius said, “If it is not the original tune of the ‘Wu’ dance, then what tune is it?”

He replied, “The institution in charge of the ‘Wu’ music has lost its tradition. Otherwise, it would mean that when King Wu composed the music, his mind was already confused and muddled.”

Confucius said, “Yes, yes. I once heard Chang Hong say, and his words are exactly the same as yours.”

Bin Muja stood up, positioned himself below the seat, and asked, “The ‘Wu’ music beats the drum to warn the crowd, but it has been delayed for a long time. My knowledge is limited to this. Thanks to your explanation, Chang Hong also interpreted it this way, so I know it is indeed so. But what I don’t understand is, why has it been delayed for such a long time?”

Confucius said, “Please have a seat, and I will explain it to you slowly. Music is a vivid representation of past events. For example, at the beginning of the ‘Wu’ music, the dancers hold shields, and the mountains stand still, symbolizing the actions of King Wu at that time: commanding his subordinates to be fully armed, waiting for the lords to respond, and preparing to strike. The ‘Wu’ dance begins with vigorous and fierce movements, symbolizing Duke Lu.

Zigong asked the musician Yi, “I have heard that different songs are suitable for people with different talents. What kind of song would be suitable for someone like me?”

Shi Yi said, “I am merely a lowly musician and not worthy to say who should sing what song. Please allow me to share what I know, and you can decide for yourself what song is suitable. Those who are broad-minded and fond of tranquility, gentle yet upright, are suitable for singing the ‘Song’ songs; those who are broad-minded and fond of tranquility, detached, open-minded, and trustworthy, are suitable for singing the ‘Da Ya’ songs; those who are respectful, fr

All sounds are produced by the human heart. Heaven and humanity are interconnected; they are like the shadow and the object in a mirror, resembling each other, and like the echo and the sound, responding to each other. Therefore, those who do good will be rewarded with blessings by heaven, while those who do evil will suffer misfortunes from heaven. This is a very natural occurrence.

Therefore, Shun played the five-stringed qin and sang the poem “Southern Wind,” and the world was well-governed; King Zhou sang the music of the northern border of Chaoge and met with death and the fall of his kingdom. What was grand about Shun’s actions? What was narrow-minded about King Zhou’s actions? The poem “Southern Wind” is music of growth, and Shun loved and cherished it. This joy and love aligned with the will of heaven and earth.

During the reign of Duke Ling of Wei, there was an occasion when he was about to go to the State of Jin. He traveled to the region of the Puo River and stayed in a high-class inn. In the middle of the night, he suddenly heard the sound of a guqin being played. He asked those around him, and they all replied, “We didn’t hear anything.” He then summoned a musician named Juan and said to him, “I heard the sound of a guqin being played.

Duke Ping said, “This is the most moving piece of music I have ever heard. Is there anything more moving than this?” Shi Kuang replied, “Yes.” Duke Ping asked, “Can we listen to it?” Shi Kuang said, “Only those with deep virtue and righteousness can listen to this piece. You are not yet able to.” Duke Ping said, “The only thing I desire is to listen to the music. I hope to hear it.” Reluctantly, Shi Kuang

Duke Ping was overjoyed and stood up to toast Shikuan. After sitting back down, he asked, “Is there any piece more moving than this?” Shikuan replied, “Yes. The piece played during the past sacrificial rites by the Yellow Emperor was even more moving, but your virtue and righteousness are too thin to deserve it. Listening to it would bring disaster and ruin.” Duke Ping said, “At my age, do I still care about disaster and ruin? I only enjoy

Listening to music can bring either good or bad fortune. Music should not be played casually.

Sima Qian said: In ancient times, wise emperors played music not for their own pleasure, indulgence, or momentary satisfaction. Those who sought to cultivate virtue began with music, for when music is correct, behavior is also correct. Therefore, music is used to stir the blood, communicate the spirit, harmonize, and rectify the human heart. The sound of the gong can stimulate the spleen and harmonize and rectify the character of a saint; improper things also have no chance of intruding.