Emperor Xiaowen’s Impact on Han Dynasty – A Legacy of Benevolence

Middle son of Gaozu was Emperor Xiaowen. Having routed Minister Chen’s army in the spring of the eleventh year of Gaozu’s reign (196 BC), he pacified Dai, anointed Emperor Wen as King of Dai, and established Zhongdu as the capital. Son of Empress Dowager Bo, he was. August saw the death of King Dai in the seventeenth year of his reign, the eighth year of Empress Gao. Empress Lu’s biography states that when Lu Yan and other Lu sons attempted to rebel against Liu in the ninth month, the ministers conspired to execute them and decided to call King Dai to come and appoint him as emperor.

Sending men to welcome King Dai were Prime Minister Chen Ping and Lieutenant Zhou Bo. King Dai enlisted Zhang Wu and other close ministers. Zhang Wu and the others advised, “The ministers of the Han court were all great generals at the time of Emperor Gao Di, familiar with military affairs and many powerful strategies. I am afraid that their intention is more than that, but only because they are afraid of the power of Emperor Gao Di and Empress Dowager Lu. Now that they have exterminated Lu and bloodied the capital, they are nominally greeting the Great King, but in reality they cannot be trusted. I hope that the Great King will claim illness and not go there, thus observing the change of events.” Lieutenant Song Chang advanced, “The suggestions of the ministers are all wrong. When the Qin dynasty was in political chaos, the lords and heroes rose up in rebellion, and there were tens of thousands of people who thought they could get the world, but the one who finally ascended to the throne of the Emperor was the Liu clan, and the heroes and heroes of the world had no hope of competing for the throne of the Emperor, and this is the first point. Emperor Gao divided the sons of the Liu Clan into kings, and the boundaries of the feudal states were intertwined with each other, which was what they called a clan that was as solid as a rock, and the people of the world were submissive because of its strength, which was the second point. After the creation of the Han Dynasty, the harsh decrees of the Qin Dynasty were abolished, the decrees were streamlined, and favors were given, and people lived and worked in peace and contentment, and it was hard to be shaken, which was the third point. By virtue of the majesty of Empress Dowager Lu, the Lu Clan had already had three of its men crowned as kings, and they were arbitrary and despotic in the imperial court. However, when the lieutenant entered the northern army with a runic symbol, he made the soldiers bare their left arms with a cry, supported Liu, betrayed Lu, and finally annihilated the Lu Clan. This was divine authority granted by the heavens, not something that could be done by human power. Now even if the ministers want to rebel, the people will not be driven by them. Can their clique work together? Now internally there are relatives like Marquis Zhu Xu and Marquis Dongmou, and externally they fear the might of King Wu, King Chu, King Huainan, King Luangxie, King Qi, and King Dai. Now the only sons of the Gao Emperor are the King of Huainan and the Great King, and the Great King is older, and is known throughout the world for being wise and holy and kind and filial, so the ministers, in obedience to the hearts of the people of the world, would like to welcome the Great King as emperor, so don’t be skeptical, Great King.” The Acting King reported that the Empress Dowager conferred with him and still hesitated. He therefore divined with a tortoise shell, obtaining the Great Heng’s trigram. The divination declared, “The lines are thick and horizontal, I am the king of heaven, and I will start my career in summer and radiate light.” The Acting King remarked, “I was already a king, what more do I need to be?” The diviner added, “The Heavenly King mentioned here is the Son of Heaven.” King Dai then dispatched Bo Zhao, the younger brother of the empress dowager, to pay Jiang Hou a visit. Jiang Hou and the others told Bo Zhao the truth about their plan of welcoming King Dai. King Dai laughed and told Song Chang, “It is as you said,” after Bo Zhao returned and stated, “It can be believed, there is no need to doubt.” Song Chang was then appointed as his counselor, and Zhang Wu and six others also took a stagecoach to Chang’an. After they reached Gaoling and took a break, King Dai dispatched Song Chang to Chang’an to see how things were developing.

Once at Weiqiao, Song Chang is welcomed by government representatives starting with the prime minister. Reporting back was Song Chang. Every minister arrived in Weiqiao to honor King Dai. Getting out of the chariot, King Dai saluted. “If what you say is a public matter, say it publicly. What is said is a private matter, and the emperor does not entertain private matters,” Song Chang remarked as Zhou Bo, the lieutenant, knelt down and presented the seal and runes of the Son of Heaven. “We shall discuss this matter again at the official residence of the Dai state,” the king of Dai thanked him and drove into the state’s residence. Every minister trailed after. The prime minister Chen Ping, the lieutenant Zhou Bo, the general Chen Wu, the royal historian Zhang Cang, the zongzheng Liu Ying, the zhuxu marquis Liu Zhang, the dongmou marquis Liu Xingju, and the dianjie Liu Jie all bowed down twice and then said, “Liu Hong and the others are not the sons of Emperor Xiaohui, so they shouldn’t be presiding over the temple sacrifices. We respectfully invited Marquis Yin’an, Marquis Haha, Queen Wang and King of Langya, the royal family, ministers, marquises, and officials above 2,000 stone to discuss and say, ‘The Great King is the oldest son of Emperor Gao Di, and should be the heir to the throne of Emperor Gao Di.’ I hope that the Great King will ascend to the throne of the Son of Heaven.” King Dai said, “Honoring the Gao Di’s ancestral temple is a matter of great importance. I am not talented enough to honor the temple. I hope to ask the King of Chu to reconsider, I dare not take up the responsibility.” All the ministers knelt down to make a firm request. Three times the king of Chu faced the west, and twice the south. Then King Dai ascended the throne of the Son of Heaven, saying, “The royal family, generals and ministers, the kings and marquises all think that no one is more suitable than me, and I dare not make any more excuses.” Prime Minister Chen Ping and others said, “We have deliberated and think that it is the most suitable for the king to honor the temple of Emperor Gao Di, and even if we let the lords and people of the world consider it, they will also think it is suitable. We dare not make a rash decision for the sake of the country. We hope you will heed our advice. We once again bow down to honor the seal of the Son of Heaven and the runic seals.”

The ministers served in etiquette-driven sequence. Then they dispatched Eastern Mou Marquis Liu Xingju and Imperial Servant Xiahou Ying to tidy the palace, greet the Son of Heaven’s carriage, and visit the emperor at the State of Dai’s formal house. That evening the emperor went into the Weiyang Palace. Later, at night, he named Song Chang General of Wei in order to subdue the armies in the north and south. The Langzhong order designated Zhang Wu to guard the palace. Declaring, “Previously, the Lu clan was in power and conspired to commit treason and wanted to jeopardize the Liu clan’s temple, but they relied on the generals, marquises, clansmen, and ministers to put them to death, so that they would serve their crimes and be punished. I have just assumed the throne and will grant amnesty to the whole world, rewarding the people by raising each person to the first degree of knighthood, rewarding the women with wine and meat in units of one hundred households, and gathering the people for five days of feasting.”

Emperor Xiaowen reappointed Liu Ze, the former King of Luangshi, as King of Yan on the tenth day of the tenth month of the first year of his reign (179 B.C.).

The monarch visited the High Temple and formally took the throne on Xinhai Day. The lieutenant, Zhou Bo, was made right prime minister, and the general, Gu Ying, was appointed lieutenant. Chen Ping, the right prime minister, was reappointed left prime minister. The rulers of Qi and Chu were granted back the territories that had been taken by Lu and had been originally theirs.

To greet the Empress Dowager in the State of Dai on the day of Imjin, Emperor Wen dispatched General Bo Zhao of the Charioteer Cavalry. The emperor said, “Lu Chan has appointed himself prime minister and Lu Lu as general, and without authorization, he sent General Gui to lead an army to attack Qi in order to replace Liu, but Gui Ying stayed in Xingyang and didn’t attack Qi, and he plotted with his vassals to exterminate Lu. When Lü Chan tried to rebel, the prime minister Chen Ping and the lieutenant Zhou Bo plotted to seize the military power of Lü Chan and others. Liu Zhang, the Marquis of Zhu Xu, took the lead in arresting Lu Chan and the others. The lieutenant himself led Marquis Ji Tong of Xiangping to enter the northern army with a rune and an imperial edict. Liu Zhai, the pawnbroker, personally seized the general’s seal of Lu Lu, the king of Zhao. Enhancement of Lieutenant Zhou Bo with 10,000 households and a reward of 5,000 catties of gold. Add Prime Minister Chen Ping and General Gu Ying to 3,000 households each and reward them with 2,000 catties of gold. He added Marquis Liu Zhang of Zhu Xu, Marquis Ji Tong of Xiangping, and Marquis Liu Xingju of Dongmou to 2,000 households each, and rewarded them with 1,000 catties of gold. Seal the dianjie Liu Jie as Marquis Yangxin, with a reward of one thousand catties of gold.”

halting the emperor’s carriage and acknowledging his remarks, taken from “The Diagram of the Emperor’s Discipline”.

In December, Emperor Wen said: “Decree is the rule of the state, which can be used to prohibit atrocities and persuade people to be good. Now, when people who have broken the law are convicted, they have to involve their innocent parents, wives, children and brothers to be punished together, and their children have to be confiscated as government slaves. The group of ministers discuss this.” The officials of the departments concerned all said, “The people cannot govern themselves, so decrees are made to restrain them. Family members who are implicated are also to be arrested, just to keep people’s minds occupied and make them take a cautious view of breaking the law, a practice that has been going on for a long time. It is still more appropriate to follow the original practice.” Emperor Wen said, “I have heard that if the decree is just, the people will be loyal, and if the punishment is appropriate, the people will be obedient. Moreover, it is the officials who govern the people and persuade them to be good. If the officials fail to persuade the people and use unjust decrees to punish them, this is instead harmful to the people and forces them to do bad things. What should be used to prohibit this? I do not see why it is appropriate; the ministers will consider it in more detail.” The officials of the departments concerned all said, “Your Majesty’s favors are so vast and meritorious that it is not for us to think of them. We comply with the edict and abolish the decree punishing innocent family members as government slaves.”

In the first month of the year, the officials of the department concerned advanced and said, “Establish the Crown Prince at an early date, thus honoring the temple. Request the establishment of a crown prince.” Emperor Wen said, “My virtue is shallow, the gods and goddesses of heaven have not yet enjoyed the sacrifices, and the people of the world are not yet satisfied. Now, even though I cannot search all over the world for a wise, holy and virtuous man and cede the world to him, I say that I want to pre-establish a crown prince, which will make my virtue even more shallow. What shall I say to the people of the world? This matter is put aside for the time being.” The official said, “To pre-establish a crown prince is to honor the temple and the gods of earth and grain, and to show that you do not forget the people of the world.” Emperor Wen said, “The King of Chu, who is my uncle, is old enough to know a lot of the world’s truths and understand the state’s general principles. The King of Wu, who is my elder brother, is kind and benevolent and prefers morality. The King of Huainan, my younger brother, is a moral man who assists me. Are they not pre-established heirs? The vassal kings, the brothers of the royal family, and the meritorious ministers are many men of virtue and righteousness. It would be a good thing for the gods of earth and grain and a blessing for the world if I were to elect men of virtue to assist me in my unfinished business. Now, if I do not promote them, but say that I must establish my own son, people will think that I have forgotten the wise and virtuous men and am thinking only of my own son, which is not the way to share the worries of the people of the world. I think this is very undesirable.” The officials all firmly pleaded, “In ancient times, the Yin and Shang and Zhou dynasties founded their states and ruled for more than a thousand years, and there is no dynasty that has won the world in ancient times that has lasted longer than this, for it has been a long time since the emperors of these two dynasties chose successors who must be their own sons. The Gao Di himself led the civil and military officials and had just pacified the world when he created the vassal states and became the Great Ancestor of the emperors of this dynasty. The vassal kings and lords who initially received the fiefs were also the founding fathers of each country. It is a great righteousness of the world that the descendants should inherit the throne and the generations should not be cut off, so the Gao Di set up this system to stabilize the hearts of the people at home and abroad. It is not Gao Di’s intention to abandon what should be observed and choose another vassal and clansman. It is not appropriate to discuss it further. The Emperor’s son Liu Qi is the oldest and pure and benevolent, so I request that he be made the Crown Prince.” Emperor Wen then agreed. He next conferred a one-degree elevation upon individuals worldwide who ought to be their father’s heirs. Bo Zhao, the general, was created Marquis of 蛵(轵澡).

March saw the officials of the pertinent agencies ask for a queen. The empress’s surname was Dou, and Empress Dowager Bo remarked, “The vassals are all of the same surname; make the mother of the crown prince the empress.” Emperor Wen granted a set amount of fabric, silk, rice and meat to each widow and widower, the destitute and the needy, the aged over 80, and the orphans under 9 years old because of the creation of the empress. Following his kindness to the people of the world and his satisfaction of the vassals and tribes of the four directions upon his arrival to Chang’an from the realm of Dai, Emperor Wen awarded the ministers of merit who had likewise arrived from the realm of Dai. Emperor Wen declared, “I hesitated, and all the ministers stopped me, but only Song Chang, the lieutenant, encouraged me, and I was able to honor the temple. I have promoted Song Chang to the rank of General of Wei, and now I have made him Marquis of Zhuangwu. The other six men who came with me have all been promoted to the rank of Nine Ministers.”

Emperor Wen said, “Sixty-eight of the Lieutenants who followed the Gao Di to Shu County and Hanzhong County were rewarded with an additional cognac of 300 households each; ten officials above 2,000 stone who followed the Gao Di in the past, such as Liu Zun, the governor of Yingchuan County, and others were rewarded with an additional cognac of 600 households each; 10 people, such as Shen Tujia, the governor of Huaiyang County, were rewarded with an additional cognac of 500 households each; and 10 people, such as Wei Weiwei Ting and others, were rewarded with an additional cognac of 400 households each. He conferred the title of Marquis of Zhouyang on the uncle of the King of Huainan, and the title of Marquis of Qingguo on the uncle of the King of Qi, Mr. Yi Jun.” In the fall, Emperor Wen conferred the title of Marquis Fan on Cai Kan, former prime minister of the Changshan State.

After Zhou Bo, the right prime minister, resigned and claimed to be ill, Chen Ping, the left prime minister, took over as prime minister alone. Some people counseled the right prime minister, “You killed Lu and welcomed the king, and now you boast of your great achievements, receive the highest rewards, and live in an honorable position, but you are about to be in great trouble.”

When Prime Minister Chen Ping died in the tenth month of the second year (178 BC), the court reappointed Marquis Zhou Bo of Jiangjiang as prime minister. Emperor Wen said, “I have heard that in ancient times the lords created more than a thousand states, each of them guarded their fiefs and paid tribute to the imperial court on time, so that the people would not toil, and the whole court rejoiced, and there was no unappreciated sage. Now most of the feudal lords live in Chang’an, far away from their fiefs, and the officials and soldiers have to work hard to supply and transport the local taxes, and the lords are unable to teach their respective populations. Order the Liehou to return to their respective fiefdoms, and those who hold official positions in the imperial court as well as those who are authorized to stay by imperial decree to send their princes back.”

There was a solar eclipse on an unknown day in November. An other solar eclipse happened on the last day of the twelfth month. Emperor Wen said, “I have heard that Heaven gives birth to ten thousand people and sets up a ruler for them to raise and govern them. If the monarch is not benevolent and governs unfairly, Heaven will show calamities to warn him that the world is not well governed. So on the obscure day of the eleventh month, there was a solar eclipse, and heaven manifested its chastisement of me; there could be no greater calamity than this! I was able to preserve the temple, and by virtue of my small body I was lifted up by all the people and vassals; the stability and chaos of the world depended on me alone, and all the ministers in charge of the state were like my right hand and left arm. I am unable to govern and nourish all the people down below, and I am dragging down the glory of the Three Stars up above, my unkindness and virtue is too serious. Upon receiving the edict, all ministers should seriously consider my faults and tell me what I have seen, heard, and thought about that is beyond my reach. They should also elect people who are virtuous and upright and able to give direct advice to rectify my faults. Officials at all levels should take the opportunity to organize their duties and reduce the amount of corvée and expenses for the convenience of the people. Since I can no longer extend my benevolence to the faraway places, I have never stopped my border defense affairs for fear that people from the faraway places will commit crimes. Now even though I cannot remove the garrisons at the borders, I have ordered more troops to protect the palace, and I should withdraw the General Wei’s army. The existing horses of the Imperial Servant should only be left sufficient for the purpose, and the rest should be given to the use of the post.”

Emperor Wen declared during the first month, “I will personally take the lead in cultivating agriculture, to supply the grains used in the patriarchal sacrifices. Agriculture, which is the foundation of the world, is now reclaiming the汍攰.”

The involved departmental officials asked in March to have the emperor’s son crowned as a vassal king. Emperor Wen said, “King Yu of Zhao was imprisoned and died. I have great pity for him and have already made his eldest son Liu Sui the king of Zhao. Liu Piqiang, Liu Sui’s younger brother, as well as Liu Zhang, Marquis Zhu Xu, and Liu Xingju, Marquis Dongmou, the sons of King Mourning Hui of Qi, have done meritorious deeds and can also be crowned.” So he made Liu Piqiang, the youngest son of King Yu of Zhao, king of Hezha, and used the great counties of Qi to make Marquis Zhu Xu king of Chengyang, Marquis Dongmou king of Jibei, his royal son Liu Wu king of Dai, his royal son Liu Shen king of Taiyuan, and his royal son Liu Hing king of Liang.

Emperor Wen said, “In ancient times, when the world was governed, the court set up flags for offering good advice and wooden pillars for criticizing the government, so as to keep the way of governing open and encourage direct advice. Now there are charges of slandering the government and confusing the people, which prevent the ministers from speaking freely and the emperor from knowing his own faults. How can this attract wise men and women from far and wide? This decree should be abolished. When someone among the people cursed the emperor and agreed to hide it from each other, but later they deceived each other, the officials considered it as treason, and when they said something else, the officials considered it as slandering the imperial government. I think it is very undesirable to condemn the people to death because of their ignorance. From now on, those who commit such offenses should not be entertained for punishment.”

County protectors started receiving bronze tiger and bamboo envoy charms from the imperial court in September.

October Dingyou, an obscure day in the third year (177 BC), saw a solar eclipse.

Zhou Bo, the Marquis of Jiangjiang, returned to his fiefdom free of the office of prime minister after Emperor Wen stated in the eleventh month, “Previously, when I issued an edict for the lords to return to their fiefdoms, some of them found excuses not to go. As the prime minister is a person whom I value, I hope that the prime minister will lead the lords back to the feudal state for me.” Prime minister was Imperial Captain Ying Yin Marquis Gu Ying, nominated by Emperor Wen. The prime minister gained the lieutenant’s authority and the role was eliminated.

Death of Chengyang’s King Liu Zhang occurred in April. Trial Shiqi, Marquis of Piyang, was slain by King Liu Chang of Huainan and Wei Jing, his entourage.

Xiong Nu arrived in Beidi County during the fifth month and set up shop for looting in Henan Province. First visitation to Ganquan Palace by Emperor Wen. In June, Emperor Wen said, “The Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu are brothers in order to prevent them from encroaching on the border, so they have given the Xiongnu very generous possessions. Now King Youxian has left his country and led his troops to occupy the area of Henan Province which has already belonged to the Han Dynasty, which is not a normal state; he has been approaching the border fortresses, arresting and killing officials and soldiers, expelling the barbarians defending the border fortresses and preventing them from living in their original places, bullying the border officials, committing crimes and plundering, and he has been very haughty, not abiding by the right way, and breaking the covenant. Now dispatch 85,000 officials and cavalry guarding the borders to Gao Nu, and send Prime Minister Ying Yin Marquis Gu Ying to lead an army to attack Xiong Nu.” When the Xiong Nu left, Emperor Wen sent the Lieutenant Material Officer under the General of Wei, stationed at Chang’an.

Traveling from Ganquan Palace to Gao Nu on the Xinmao day, Emperor Wen stopped at Taiyuan en route and gave the ministers of the former state of Dai their dues. He distributed wine and meals to the populace and compensated them based on their deserving. For three years, Jinyang and Zhongdu residents were spared from labor. At Taiyuan, Emperor Wen stayed for ten days.

Rebelling and sending his army to fight Xingyang, King Liu Xingju of Jibei learned that Emperor Wen was on his way to Dai and intended to attack Xiong Nu. Emperor Wen then appointed Chen Wu, the Marquis of Spurgeon, as a commander to command an army of 100,000 to put down the rebellion and issued an order to evacuate the prime minister’s army. General Marquis Qi Shie He was based in Xingyang. “The king of Jibei has violated his benevolence and betrayed the emperor, and has dragged the officials and people of his subordinates into the trouble, which is a great treason. The officials and people of Jibei Kingdom who surrendered on their own when the army did not arrive, as well as those who led their armies or offered their cities to surrender, were all pardoned and restored to their official positions and titles. Those who followed King Liu Xingju of Jebei and later surrendered are also pardoned,” Emperor Wen said in an imperial edict issued when he returned to Chang’an from Taiyuan on the Xinhai day of the seventh month.

The Han force routed the Jibei army in the ninth month and took the Jibei King prisoner. Emperor Wen granted the Jibei Kingdom officials and populace who had supported King Jibei’s uprising pardon.

Authorities of the pertinent departments reported in the sixth year (174 B.C.) that Liu Chang, King of Huainan, had disobeyed the imperial edicts of the Son of Heaven, exceeded the boundaries of the palace where he lived, came and went in and out of the palace in a manner similar to that of the Son of Heaven, enacted ordinances without authorization, plotted rebellion with Chen Qi, the crown prince of the Prince of Thorny Pou, sent out missions to Min-Yueh and Xiong-Nu, mobilized the local armies, and intended to endanger the ancestral temple and the altars of the earth and the countryside. The ministers unanimously agreed after discussion that “Liu Chang should be put to death in public.” Emperor Wen overcame his desire to torment the Huainan King and overturned his death sentence. Emperor Wen granted the ministers’ proposal to banish the King of Huainan to the Shu County regions of Yandao and Qiongdu. Emperor Wen sympathized with Liu Chang even though he did not make it to the banishment site but rather became sick and passed away on route. Later, in the sixteenth year (164 BC), Liu Chang was proclaimed King Li posthumously and his three sons were named King of Huainan, King of Hengshan, and King of Lujiang.

“I should be held responsible for the mistakes of the hundred officials,” said Emperor Wen in the summer of the thirteenth year (167 BC), “I have heard that tragedies originate from grudges and blessings from benevolence and virtue, and this is in accordance with the way of Heaven.

The fifth month saw Chun Yu Gong, a Taicang magistrate of the state of Qi, commit a crime for which he should be punished. The imperial court issued an edict to have him arrested and escorted to Chang’an for detention. Now the Secret Blessing Officer puts all the faults on the subordinates, thus manifesting my unkindness, which I consider highly undesirable. Abandon this official position. He only has five girls, no boy. When Taicang Gong was about to be escorted away, he scolded his daughters, saying, “If you have children but no sons, you will be of no use at all in an emergency.” His youngest daughter, Ti Ha, wept sadly alone, and followed her father to Chang’an, where she wrote to the court, saying, “My father was an official, and the people of Qi praised him for his honesty and justice, and now he should be punished for breaking the law. I am grieved that the dead cannot be brought back to life, and the limbs of the tortured cannot be reunited, so that even if I want to reform myself, there is no other way to do so. I am willing to be punished as a government slave to atone for my father’s sins so that he can reform himself.” Ti-Ha’s petition was sent to the Son of Heaven, who, compassionate for her filial piety, issued an imperial edict saying, “I have heard that in the time of the Yu Clan, criminals were punished by painting the corresponding punishment on their clothes and hats, so as to make them distinguishable from the ordinary people’s costumes, but the people would not violate the decree. Why? Because it was a time of peace and prosperity. Now there are three kinds of corporal punishment in the decree, but it does not prohibit people from violating the law, so where is the fault? Isn’t it because my virtue is shallow and my teaching is unclear? I am ashamed of myself, so the imperfect method of instruction leads the foolish little people into lawlessness. The Poetry says, ‘A gentleman of peace and joy is the parent of the people.’ Now when people commit crimes, they are first punished before they are indoctrinated, and even if someone wants to change his ways, there is no chance for him to do so. I have great pity for them. How painful and immoral is the punishment that results in mutilation and tattooing on the skin, which cannot be restored for life, and how can it be consistent with being a parent to the people! Corporal punishment should be abolished.”

Emperor Wen declared, “There is no more important matter than agriculture, being the foundation of the world. Now people work hard but have to pay rent and tax, which makes no difference between those who engage in their own business and those who do not; this is due to the fact that the method of encouraging farming is not yet complete. The rent tax on farmland should be reduced.”

Plotting to cross the boundary in the winter of the fourteenth year (166 BC), the Xiong Nu killed Beiji Lieutenant Sun Ang by pillaging and attacking the ChaoSei. Emperor Wen next assigned Lieutenant Zhou She as General of Wei and Langzhong Lingzhi Zhang Wu as General of Chariots and Cavalry, to be stationed north of the Weishui River with 1,000 chariots and 100,000 cavalrymen. These generals were to be stationed in Longxi, Beidi, and Shangxian counties. Reorganizing the army, reaffirming the commands, and rewarding all the generals, Emperor Wen personally consoled the soldiers. Although his ministers tried to talk him out of it, Emperor Wen insisted on leading his troops to fight Xiong Nu. Emperor Wen gave up only when the Empress Dowager was resolved to stop him. After that, he named Luan Bu the general, Marquis Dong Chi of Cheng the inner historian, and Marquis Zhang Xiangru of Dongyang the general, and they attacked the Xiong Nu. The Xiongnu escaped.

In the spring, Emperor Wen said, “I have been able to offer sacrifices and jade and silk to the Heavenly Emperor and the ancestral temple, and it has been fourteen years now, which is a very long time, and I am deeply ashamed that I have been able to rule the world for a long time without being diligent and sensitive and unwise. The altar should be enlarged and more offerings should be made. In the past, the late king gave favors from afar without asking for returns, sacrificed to the mountains and rivers without praying for blessings, honored the wise and talented without attaching importance to relatives, and thought of the people first and then himself, which was so wise and holy that it could not be ignored. Now I have heard that the officials in charge of sacrifices pray to the gods for blessings, all of which are attributed to me alone, but do not consider the people, for which I am deeply ashamed. A person of shallow virtue like me is enjoying the blessings of the gods alone, while the people are not able to enjoy them. Now order the official in charge of sacrifices to show respect to the gods and not to pray for me.”

As prime minister at the period, Zhang Cang, the Marquis of Beiping, was creating calendars and music. Writing on the theory of the five virtues of the end and beginning, Lu County native Gongsun Chen recommended that the calendar and dress code be adjusted as it was now the time of the Earth Virtue, which matched the appearance of the Yellow Dragon. The Son of Heaven sent the Prime Minister this issue to talk about with his ministers. Having studied the issue, the prime minister declared that October should be the first month of the year and that black should be highlighted in the dress code; he believed that Gongsun Chen’s theory was wrong and asked that it not be accepted.

The Son of Heaven called Gongsun Chen of the county of Lu again in the fifteenth year (165 B.C.) and named him a doctor so that he would clarify the theories pertaining to the virtue of the earth when a yellow dragon appeared at Chengji. Emperor Wen then issued an edict declaring, “A strange divine creature appeared in Chengji and did not harm the people, and this year’s harvest is very good. I will personally go to the outskirts of the city to worship the Emperor of Heaven and the gods. The officials in charge of the ceremonies confer and do not worry about my exertion.” The officials in charge of the ceremonies all replied, “In ancient times, the Son of Heaven personally went to the countryside in summer to sacrifice to the Emperor of Heaven in accordance with the ceremonies, so it is called the Suburban Sacrifice.” Emperor Wen thus paid his first in-person visit to the county of Yong, offered sacrifices to the five emperors in the suburbs, and thanked Heaven for sending down auspiciousness in the fourth month of Beng Xia. Because of his aptitude in qigong, a man from the state of Zhao named Niigakihei was called upon and used the chance to convince Emperor Wen to construct a temple to the Five Emperors in Weiyang, hoping to see the Nine Cauldrons of the Zhou Dynasty reappear as well as the essence of jade.

While the clothing honored the color red, Emperor Wen personally hosted a suburb festival at the Temple of the Five Emperors in Weiyang in the sixteenth year (164 BC) and thanked the heavens for the auspiciousness of the summer.

Emperor Wen was presented a jade cup in the seventeenth year (163 BC) with the inscription “The Lord of Man extends his life”. Emperor Wen therefore began to turn the current year into the first and gave the people instructions to assemble and feast. The three clans were executed in that year after Arakaki Hei’s plot was revealed.

In the second year of Hou Yuan (162 BC), Emperor Wen said, “I am not wise enough to extend my benevolence to distant places, so I have prevented some countries outside the country from stabilizing and harmonizing. The people in the remote areas of the four directions cannot live and work in peace and contentment, and the people within the territory are not allowed to rest from their toil and labor; both of these faults are due to my shallow virtue not being able to spread to the faraway places. In recent years, the Xiong Nu has come to plague the borders, killing many officials and people, and the officials and soldiers guarding the borders have been unable to inform the Xiong Nu of my thoughts, making my virtue even more shallow. What will the nations of the world rest in peace with each other if they are thus perpetually at war with each other? Now I get up early and go to bed late, laboring over the affairs of the world and worrying about hundreds of millions of people, and my heart is in a state of fear and anxiety, and there is not a single day when I forget this matter. Therefore I have sent messengers to and fro, and an endless stream of carriages and horses, to inform Shan-yu of my thoughts. Now Shan-yu has returned to the old path of amity, considering the peace of the country and seeking the good of the people, and has personally forgotten the petty quarrels with me, and has walked together on the high road, forming a brotherly bond of friendship for the preservation of the hundreds of millions of people in the world. It has been decided to make peace, beginning this year.”

30,000 Xiong Nu men entered Shang County and 30,000 entered Yunzhong during the winter of the sixth year of Houyuan (158 BC). 文帝任命中大夫令勉为车骑将军，驻扎在飞狐；任命原楚国相苏意为将军，驻扎在句注；命令将军张武屯守北地；任命河内郡守周亚夫为将军，驻扎在细柳；任命宗正刘礼为将军，驻军霸上；命令松兹侯驻扎在棘门，以此防备胡人。 The Hu retreated after a few months, and with them did all the troops.

There was a severe dry spell and locust plague. Emperor Wen bestowed favors, saying, “Order the lords not to pay tribute to the court, open the mountains, forests, lakes, and swamps, reduce the number of dresses, vehicles, dogs, horses, and other things, lay off the quota of langguangs, open the granaries to provide relief for the poor and needy, and allow the people to buy and sell titles.”

After arriving in Chang’an from Daikuo, Emperor Xiaowen ruled for twenty-three years, during which time he removed all restrictions that were inconvenient for the populace. Emperor Wen once called the craftsmen to estimate the cost of building a terrace, which came to one hundred gold. “One hundred gold is equivalent to the property of ten middle-ranking families, and I often worry about bringing shame to the late emperor when I am guarding his palace, so what is the point of building a balcony?” Emperor Wen often dressed in coarse silk, and in order to demonstrate his generosity and economy, he forbade his favorite Lady Shen from wearing clothing that dragged on the ground and from having embroidered draperies in the palace. To conserve money and avoid upsetting the populace, Emperor Wen constructed the Tomb of Ba with all of the burial items made of tiles and prohibited the use of gold, silver, copper, or tin as ornamentation. Emperor Wen called his brothers and bestowed titles and honors upon Zhao Tuo, the monarch of South Vietnam, who had declared himself Emperor Wu. Zhao Tuo then renounced his imperial claim and submitted to the Han Dynasty. Xiong Nu broke their truce with the Han Dynasty and invaded the nation to plunder. For fear of upsetting the populace, Emperor Wen did not dispatch troops far into Xiong Nu’s domain; rather, he just instructed the frontier to be strengthened. Emperor Wen granted the Wu monarch a voucher and a cane after he lied about being ill and missing the court. Though the ministers, like Yuan Ang, issued dire warnings, Emperor Wen frequently listened to them. When some of his ministers—like Zhang Wu—were discovered to have accepted financial presents from others, Emperor Wen gave them money from the palace treasury, making them feel guilty inside rather than turning them over to the authorities to face consequences. Because Emperor Wen committed himself to moral education for his subjects, morals and etiquette ruled the world and the four seas were affluent and flourishing.

Emperor Wen passed away in Weiyang Palace on the sixth day of the sixth month in the seventh year of Houyuan (157 BC). His posthumous edict said, “I have heard that probably there is no sprouting and growing of everything under the sky that does not die. Death is the common sense between heaven and earth, the natural law of all things in the world, what is there to be excessively sad about! In this day and age, the world prefers life to death, and I think it is very undesirable to waste the family’s wealth by burying them thickly after death, and to harm their bodies by overdoing the mourning. Moreover, my virtue is too shallow to help the people. Now that I have passed away, how can I explain to the people of the world that I am even more shallow in virtue by subjecting them to excessive mourning and prolonged mourning, subjecting them to severe cold and heat, making the fathers and sons of other families grieve for me, hurting the hearts of the young and the old, reducing their diet, and forbidding the worship of ghosts and deities, which will make my virtue even more shallow! It has been more than twenty years since I have been able to serve my clan and temple, and by virtue of my small body I have been lifted up by the lords and kings of the world. It is only through the mighty spirit of heaven and earth and the well-being of the altars of society that I have been able to keep my country at peace and free from war. I was not diligent enough and sensitive enough, and often feared that my behavior would be negligent and bring disgrace to the virtues bequeathed by the late emperor, and for a long time I feared that I would not be able to end my life in a good way. Now I am fortunate enough to enjoy the fullness of my days and to be enshrined in the High Temple again. What is there to be sad about if I am not virtuous but can have a good end! Now order all officials and people in the world to go out and pay tribute for three days after the order is given, and then all take off their mourning clothes. Do not forbid the marrying of wives, the marrying of daughters, the offering of sacrifices, the drinking of wine, or the eating of meat. Those who are supposed to attend the funeral ceremony and wear mourning clothes to pay their respects should not go barefoot. The width of the sisal belt of the mourning clothes should not exceed three inches, and there should be no display of vehicles and weapons, and there should be no mobilization of men and women from the private sector to come to the palace to weep and mourn. Those who should mourn in the palace should cry fifteen times in the morning and fifteen times in the evening of each day, and stop after performing the rituals. If it is not the time for mourning in the morning and evening, no one is allowed to cry without authorization. After the burial, those who should wear big gongfu clothes for mourning for nine months should only wear them for fifteen days, those who should wear small gongfu clothes for mourning for five months should only wear them for fourteen days, and those who should wear linen linen clothes for mourning for three months should only wear them for seven days, and then take off the mourning clothes. All others who were not within the scope of the regulations were referred to this edict. Make the edict known to the world, so that the people of the world will understand what I am trying to do. The mountains and rivers around Baling should remain as they are and not be altered. The concubines from the harem ladies down to the lesser ambassadors are dismissed to their homes.” The court appointed Zhou Yafu, the lieutenant, as the general of the Charioteer, Xu Hum, the minister of the Dignitary State, as the general of the General Tun, and Zhang Wu, the general of the Langzhong Order, as the general of the Restoration of the Earth, and conscripted 16,000 soldiers on active duty in all the counties near Chang’an, and 15,000 soldiers of the Nei Shi, who were under the command of the general, Zhang Wu, and responsible for excavating holes, digging, and filling in the earth.

All of the ministers prostrated on June 4th, B.S., in order to respect Emperor Xiaowen.

At the High Temple is the crowning of the Crown Prince. He got the title of Emperor on the day of Ding Wei.

In the tenth month of the first year of Emperor Xiaojing’s reign (156 years ago), the royal historian said, “I have heard that in ancient times emperors of merit were called Zu, and emperors of virtue were called Zong, and that there was a reason for each of them to establish rituals and music. I have heard that songs were used to glorify virtue and dances were used to show merit. When wine is offered at the High Temple, the music and dance of “Wude,” “Wenshi,” and “Wuxing” are performed. When wine is offered at the Temple of Filial Piety, the music and dance of “Wen Shi” and “Wu Xing” are performed. Emperor Xiaowen governed the world and opened the bridges at the passes so that there was no difference in the distance. He abolished the crime of slander, abolished corporal punishment, rewarded the elderly, and adopted orphans and single elderly people, thus nourishing all living beings. He reduced his appetites, did not accept tribute, and did not possess benefits privately. The wives and children of criminals were not implicated, and he did not punish the innocent. He abolished palace punishment, released harem beauties, and emphasized the severance of heirs. I am not diligent and sensitive and cannot understand. All these things were beyond the reach of the ancient emperors, but Emperor Xiaowen practiced them himself. His merits and virtues are on a par with those of heaven and earth, and his favors are so extensive that they extend to the four seas, and there is no one who has not enjoyed well-being. His glory is like the sun and the moon, but the music and dances used in the temple rituals do not match, and I am afraid. The music and dance of “Zhaode” should be created for the temple of Emperor Xiaowen to honor his virtues. The ancestor’s virtues will then be recorded in the annals of history and passed on for ten thousand generations, forever and ever, and I am very much in favor of such a course of action. This matter is entrusted to the prime minister, the Liehou, the officials of the middle and second millstones, and the officials in charge of the ceremonies to work together to draw up the ceremonies to be played on.” Prime Minister Shen Tujia and the others said, “Your Majesty has always considered filial piety, and the creation of the Zhaode music and dance to highlight the grand merits of Emperor Xiaowen are all things we could not have thought of due to our ignorance. We respectfully suggest that no one in the world surpasses Emperor Gao in merit and no one surpasses Emperor Xiaowen in virtue, that the temple of Emperor Gao should be the temple of the Great Ancestor of the emperors of this dynasty, and that the temple of Emperor Xiaowen should be the temple of Emperor Taizong of the emperors of this dynasty. The Son of Heaven shall worship the temple of the Great Ancestor and the temple of the Great Zong for generations. The county lords and vassals shall create the Taizong Temple for Emperor Xiaowen. The vassal kings and lords sent envoys to accompany the Son of Heaven in his sacrifices and made offerings to the Taizu and Taizong temples every year. Please record these regulations and publicize them to the people of the world.” The system of orders said, “It is possible.”

“Thirty years must pass before benevolence and virtue can be widely practiced,” Confucius observed, according to Tai Shi Gong. This proverb is really true! Since the Han Dynasty was founded, more than forty years passed before Emperor Xiaowen, and the benevolent government had already flourished and was progressively approaching the goal of changing the calendar and the color of the clothes and holding a feudal retreat, which had not been accomplished so far only because of modesty. Ah, is this not benevolence and virtue!